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<title>Intellect</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Intellect</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Intellect_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Intellect (disambiguation)">Intellect (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Intellect</b> is a <a href="Cognitive_skill" title="Cognitive skill">faculty</a> of the <a href="Human_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mind">human mind</a> that enables <a href="Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>, <a href="Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>, <a href="Conceptualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptualization">conceptualization</a>, and <a href="Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorsini2016494_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorsini2016494-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It enables the discernment of <a href="Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> and <a href="Falsehood" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsehood">falsehood</a>, as well as higher-order thinking beyond immediate perception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAquinas1947_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAquinas1947-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intellect is distinct from <i><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a></i>, which refers to the general ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems, whereas <i>intellect</i> concerns the application of reason to abstract or philosophical thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005Colman2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005Colman2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In philosophy, intellect (<a href="Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <i lang="grc">dianoia</i>) has often been contrasted with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc"><a href="Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i></span>, a term referring to the faculty of direct intuitive knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While intellect engages in <a href="Discursive_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Discursive reasoning">discursive reasoning</a>, breaking down concepts into logical sequences, <i>nous</i> is considered a higher cognitive faculty that allows for direct perception of truth,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially in <a href="Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> and <a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlotinus1991_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlotinus1991-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1907_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1907-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distinguished between the <a href="Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">active intellect</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">intellectus agens</i></span>), which abstracts universal concepts, and the <a href="Passive_intellect" title="Passive intellect">passive intellect</a>, which receives sensory input.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During <a href="Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the intellect was considered the bridge between the <a href="Human_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Human soul">human soul</a> and <a href="Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">divine knowledge</a>, particularly in religious and metaphysical contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thinkers such as <a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and <a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> explored intellect as the means by which humans engage in higher reasoning and theological contemplation. This intellectual tradition influenced both Christian <a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> and <a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>, where intellect was linked to the understanding of divine truth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1992_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1992-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In modern <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, the term "intellect" is sometimes used to describe higher cognitive functions related to abstract thought and logical reasoning. However, contemporary research primarily focuses on <a href="General_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="General intelligence">general intelligence</a> (g-factor) and <a href="Cognitive_abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive abilities">cognitive abilities</a> rather than intellect as a separate faculty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeary2020_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeary2020-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While theories such as <a href="Howard_Gardner" title="Howard Gardner">Howard Gardner</a>'s <a href="Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">theory of multiple intelligences</a> address diverse ways of processing information, they do not equate directly to historical or philosophical notions of intellect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner1999Collier2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner1999Collier2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_meanings">Etymology and meanings</h2></div>

<p>In <a href="Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, <i>dianoia</i> (<a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%B1" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:διάνοια">διάνοια</a>) is the human <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> capacity for, process of, or result of <i><a href="Discursive_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Discursive reasoning">discursive reasoning</a></i>, specifically about mathematical and technical subjects. It stands in contrast to the immediate, cognitive process of <i><a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitive apprehension</a></i> or <i>noesis</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/noesis" class="extiw external" title="wikt:noesis">noesis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intellect_and_intelligence">Intellect and intelligence</h3></div>

<p>As a branch of <a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, intellect primarily concerns the <a href="Logical" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical">logical</a> and <a href="Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a> functions of the human mind, emphasizing <a href="Factual_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Factual knowledge">factual knowledge</a> and <a href="Analytical_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical reasoning">analytical reasoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergson1911Guilford1967Gardner1983Damasio1994_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergson1911Guilford1967Gardner1983Damasio1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional to the functions of <a href="Linear_logic" title="Linear logic">linear logic</a> and the patterns of <a href="Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a> the intellect also processes the non-linear functions of <a href="Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">fuzzy logic</a> and <a href="Dialectical_logic" title="Dialectical logic">dialectical logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowan1989_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowan1989-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Intellect and intelligence are contrasted by etymology; derived from the Latin <a href="Present_active_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present active participle">present active participle</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">intelligere</i></span>, the term <i>intelligence</i> denotes "to gather in between", whereas the term <i>intellect</i>, derived from the <a href="Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">intelligere</i></span>, denotes "what has been gathered". Therefore, intelligence relates to the creation of new categories of understanding, based upon similarities and differences, while intellect relates to understanding existing <a href="Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBohmPeat1987114_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohmPeat1987114-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_psychology">In psychology</h2></div>

<p>A person's intellectual understanding of reality derives from a <a href="Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">conceptual model</a> of reality based upon the <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and the <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> of the material world of reality. The conceptual model of <i>mind</i> is composed of the mental and emotional processes by which a person seeks, finds, and applies logical solutions to the problems of life. The full potential of the intellect is achieved when a person acquires a factually accurate understanding of the real world, which is mirrored in the <a href="Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>. The mature intellect is identified by the person's possessing the capability of emotional self-management, wherein they can encounter, face, and resolve problems of life without being overwhelmed by emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVandenBos2006_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVandenBos2006-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Real-world <a href="Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> is necessary to and for the development of a person's intellect, because, in resolving the problems of life, a person can intellectually comprehend a social circumstance (a time and a place) and so adjust their social <a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> in order to act appropriately in the society of other people. Intellect develops when a person seeks an emotionally satisfactory solution to a problem; mental development occurs from the person's search for satisfactory solutions to the problems of life. Only experience of the real world can provide <a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a> of <a href="Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, which contributes to the person's intellectual development.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jung_and_the_four_cognitive_functions">Jung and the four cognitive functions</h3></div>

<p><a href="Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a>, the Swiss psychiatrist and founder of <a href="Analytical_psychology" title="Analytical psychology">analytical psychology</a>, offered a nuanced view of intellect and intuition within the human <a href="Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a>. He acknowledged the importance of intellectual faculties for logical reasoning and understanding but cautioned against overreliance on intellect at the expense of other vital aspects of the psyche, such as intuition and emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinger1994_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinger1994-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In <i><a href="Psychological_Types" title="Psychological Types">Psychological Types</a></i> (1923), Jung explored different modes of <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, including the role of intellect. He identified thinking as one of the primary psychological functions, which, when extraverted, is oriented by objective data and often recognized as the dominant mode in scientific and philosophical endeavors. He stated:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJung1923430_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJung1923430-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In this sense it might be said that the extraverted intellect, i.e. the mind that is orientated by objective data, is actually the only one recognized.</p></blockquote>

<p>Jung also associated intellect with the thinking function in his model of psychological types. In contrast to feeling, sensation, and intuition, thinking relies on structured, rational cognition. While necessary for problem-solving and scientific inquiry, intellect alone cannot fully grasp the depths of the psyche or facilitate individuation—the process of becoming a whole and integrated self. He noted:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJung1923611_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJung1923611-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The faculty of directed thinking, I term <i>intellect:</i> the faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term <i>intellectual intuition</i>.</p></blockquote>

<p>This distinction reflects an influence from Platonic thought, where <i>dianoia</i> (discursive reasoning) is differentiated from <i>noesis</i> (direct apprehension or intuition). Jung expanded upon this by integrating these concepts into his psychological framework, emphasizing that both intellect and intuition are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the self and the world. For Jung, intellect had its place but needed to be balanced with intuitive and symbolic thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBishop2022_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishop2022-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guilford_and_the_structure_of_intellect">Guilford and the structure of intellect</h3></div>

<p>In 1956, the psychologist <a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">Joy Paul Guilford</a> (1897–1987) proposed a Structural Intellect (SI) model in three dimensions: (i) Operations, (ii) Contents, and (iii) Products. Each parameter contains specific, discrete elements that are individually measured as autonomous units of the human mind.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilford1956_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilford1956-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intellectual operations are represented by <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> and <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, production (by <a href="Divergent_thinking" title="Divergent thinking">divergent thinking</a> and <a href="Convergent_thinking" title="Convergent thinking">convergent thinking</a>), and <a href="Evaluation" title="Evaluation">evaluation</a>. Contents are figurative and <a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a>, <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> and behavioral. Products are in units, classes, and <a href="Relation_of_Ideas" title="Relation of Ideas">relations</a>, systems, transformations, and implications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilford1967_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilford1967-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a> – Field of study in neuroscience and psychology</li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> – Philosophical study of knowledge</li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a> – Human capacity or ability to acquire, apprehend and apply knowledge</li>

<li><a href="Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a> – Mental perspective</li>

<li><a href="Intellectualization" title="Intellectualization">Intellectualization</a> – Psychological defense mechanism</li>

<li><a href="Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a> – Ability to apply knowledge with good judgment</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <a href="Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, the term <i>dianoia</i> refers to a rare side effect of selective <a href="Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> reuptake inhibitors where a significant disruption occurs simultaneously in the psychological state (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) and the lower digestive tract.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECorsini2016494-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorsini2016494_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorsini2016">Corsini (2016)</a>, p. 494.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAquinas1947-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAquinas1947_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAquinas1947">Aquinas (1947)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005Colman2008-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005Colman2008_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHonderich2005">Honderich (2005)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFColman2008">Colman (2008)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendrix2015114_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHendrix2015">Hendrix (2015)</a>, p. 114.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlotinus1991-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlotinus1991_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlotinus1991">Plotinus (1991)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1907-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1907_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAristotle1907">Aristotle (1907)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson19926Gutas2001_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson1992">Davidson (1992)</a>, p. 6; <a href="#CITEREFGutas2001">Gutas (2001)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1992-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1992_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson1992">Davidson (1992)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeary2020-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeary2020_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeary2020">Deary (2020)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner1999Collier2012-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner1999Collier2012_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGardner1999">Gardner (1999)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCollier2012">Collier (2012)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergson1911Guilford1967Gardner1983Damasio1994-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergson1911Guilford1967Gardner1983Damasio1994_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergson1911">Bergson (1911)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGuilford1967">Guilford (1967)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGardner1983">Gardner (1983)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFDamasio1994">Damasio (1994)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowan1989-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowan1989_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowan1989">Rowan (1989)</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilford1956-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilford1956_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilford1956_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuilford1956">Guilford (1956)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVandenBos2006-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVandenBos2006_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVandenBos2006">VandenBos (2006)</a>.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://augustinianparadigm.com/psychology_of_knowledge.htm">"Psychology of Knowledge: Development of the Intellect"</a>. <i>augustinianparadigm.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-01</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESinger1994-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinger1994_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinger1994">Singer (1994)</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishop2022-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBishop2022_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBishop2022">Bishop (2022)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuilford1967-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuilford1967_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuilford1967">Guilford (1967)</a>.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}

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</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAquinas1947" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, Thomas</a> (1947). <i>Summa Theologica</i>. Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Benziger Bros.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1907" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (1907). <i>On the Soul</i>. Translated by J. A. Smith. Clarendon Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBergson1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson, Henri</a> (1911). <i>Creative Evolution</i>. Translated by Arthur Mitchell. Macmillan.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBishop2022" class="citation book cs1">Bishop, Paul (2022). <i>Reading Plato Through Jung: Why Must the Third Become the Fourth?</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3031168130</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBohmPeat1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">Bohm, David</a>; Peat, F. David (1987). <i><a href="Science%2C_Order%2C_and_Creativity" title="Science, Order, and Creativity">Science, Order, and Creativity</a></i>. Bantam Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCollier2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Collier, Graham (May 2, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-consciousness-question/201205/intellect-and-intelligence">"Intellect and Intelligence"</a>. <i>Psychology Today</i>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFColman2008" class="citation book cs1">Colman, Andrew M. (2008). <i>A Dictionary of Psychology</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0191726828</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCorsini2016" class="citation book cs1">Corsini, Raymond J. (2016). <i>The Dictionary of Psychology</i>. London: Routledge.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDamasio1994" class="citation book cs1">Damasio, Antonio (1994). <i>Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain</i>. Putnam.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1992" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Herbert (1992). <i>Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, on Intellect</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDeary2020" class="citation book cs1">Deary, Ian J. (2020). <i>Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGardner1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Howard_Gardner" title="Howard Gardner">Gardner, Howard</a> (1983). <i>Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences</i>. Basic Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGardner1999" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Howard (1999). <i>Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century</i>. Basic Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuilford1956" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">Guilford, J. P.</a> (1956). "The Structure of Intellect". <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>53</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">267–</span>293. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0040755">10.1037/h0040755</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13336196">13336196</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuilford1967" class="citation book cs1">Guilford, J. P. (1967). <i>The Nature of Human Intelligence</i>. McGraw-Hill.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGutas2001" class="citation book cs1">Gutas, Dimitri (2001). <i>Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition</i>. Brill.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHendrix2015" class="citation book cs1">Hendrix, J. S. (2015). <i>Unconscious Thought in Philosophy and Psychoanalysis</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-137-53813-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHonderich2005" class="citation book cs1">Honderich, Ted (2005). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0199264797</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJung1923" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung, Carl Gustav</a> (1923). <i>Psychological Types</i>. Princeton University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPlotinus1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (1991). <i>The Enneads</i>. Translated by Stephen MacKenna. Penguin Classics.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRowan1989" class="citation book cs1">Rowan, John (1989). <i>The Intellect</i>. SAGE Social Science Collections.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSinger1994" class="citation book cs1">Singer, June (1994) [1972]. <i>Boundaries of the Soul: The Practice of Jung's Psychology</i> (Rev. and updated ed.). New York: Anchor Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVandenBos2006" class="citation book cs1">VandenBos, Gary R. (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/apadictionaryofp00vand"><i>APA Dictionary of Psychology</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59147-380-0</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFChalmers1996" class="citation book cs1">Chalmers, David (1996). <i>The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDehaene2014" class="citation book cs1">Dehaene, Stanislas (2014). <i>Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes Our Thoughts</i>. Viking.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlusser2016" class="citation book cs1">Flusser, V. (2016). <i>Philosophy of Language</i>. Translated by Rodrigo Maltez Novaes. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1937561659</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFodor1983" class="citation book cs1">Fodor, Jerry (1983). <i>The Modularity of Mind</i>. MIT Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGazzaniga2018" class="citation book cs1">Gazzaniga, Michael (2018). <i>The Consciousness Instinct: Unraveling the Mystery of How the Brain Makes the Mind</i>. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHegel1977" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, G. W. F. (1977). <i>The Phenomenology of Spirit</i>. Translated by A. V. Miller. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKonstantinovsky2016" class="citation book cs1">Konstantinovsky, J. (2016). <i>Evagrius Ponticus: The Making of a Gnostic</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1317138822</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKurzweil2012" class="citation book cs1">Kurzweil, Ray (2012). <i>How to Create a Mind: The Secret of Human Thought Revealed</i>. Viking.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOldmeadow2010" class="citation book cs1">Oldmeadow, H. (2010). <i>Frithjof Schuon and the Perennial Philosophy</i>. World Wisdom. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1935493099</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPaulElder2019" class="citation book cs1">Paul, R.; Elder, L. (2019). <i>The Thinker's Guide to Intellectual Standards: The Words that Name Them and the Criteria that Define Them</i>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1538133927</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPiaget1952" class="citation book cs1">Piaget, Jean (1952). <i>The Origins of Intelligence in Children</i>. Norton.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSpearman1927" class="citation book cs1">Spearman, Charles (1927). <i>The Abilities of Man: Their Nature and Measurement</i>. Macmillan.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intellect" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Intellect">Intellect</a> at Wikiquote</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Intellect" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Intellect"><i>Intellect</i></a> at Wiktionary</li></ul>

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